Certainly! Below are explanations and guidance for each question related to the Leighton and Scholl (2009) article. Since I don't have access to the article's specific content, I'll explain what each question is asking and how you should think about answering it. --- # Guide to Answering the Questions ## 1. **Level of Measurement (p. 189)** - **What to look for:** The four levels of measurement are: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. - **How to answer:** Find out how the questionnaire's responses are structured. Are they categories (nominal), ranks (ordinal), or numbers with equal intervals (interval/ratio)? *Example:* If the questionnaire asks participants to rate confidence on a scale from 1 to 5, this is often considered **ordinal** (or interval, if you assume equal intervals). --- ## 2. **Problems with Lack of Reliability and Validity** - **What to look for:** Reliability means the instrument consistently measures what it's supposed to. Validity means it actually measures what it claims to. - **How to answer:** List problems such as: - Results may not be trustworthy. - Hard to compare with other studies. - Conclusions may be flawed. - Data may reflect measurement error rather than true differences. --- ## 3. **Statistics in Table 1** - **What to look for:** Are these descriptive statistics (mean, SD, frequencies) or inferential statistics (t-tests, ANOVA, etc.)? - **How to answer:** Identify the type (e.g., means, standard deviations, frequencies). --- ## 4. **Meaning of M and SD in Table 2** - **What to look for:** M = Mean (average value); SD = Standard Deviation (spread of data around the mean). - **How to answer:** Define both terms and their significance in summarizing data. --- ## 5. **Statistical Test: Comparing Confidence with/without CPR Experience** - **What to look for:** Which test compares means between two groups? (e.g., independent samples t-test) - **How to answer:** Name the test used and describe what groups were compared. --- ## 6. **Statistical Test: Comparing Before and After SCE** - **What to look for:** Which test compares means within the same group at two times? (e.g., paired samples t-test) - **How to answer:** Name the test used and describe what was compared. --- ## 7. **Statistical Significance Before/After SCE** - **What to look for:** Check if the p-value is less than .05 (or stated significance level). - **How to answer:** State if there was a significant difference, and point to the p-value or test statistic shown. --- ## 8. **Statistical Significance Prior to SCE (CPR vs. No CPR Experience)** - **What to look for:** Same as above, but for baseline comparison. - **How to answer:** Indicate if there was a significant difference, citing the relevant statistic. --- ## 9. **Appropriateness of Statistics Used** - **What to look for:** Did the researchers use the right statistical tests for the type of data (level of measurement)? - **How to answer:** Explain if the tests match the data. For example, you shouldn't use parametric tests with nominal data. --- ## **Summary Table** | Q# | Main Focus | What to Find/Explain | Example/Hint | |----|--------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------| | 1 | Level of Measurement | Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio? | Ordinal if Likert scale | | 2 | Reliability & Validity | Problems due to lack thereof | Results may not be valid | | 3 | Table 1 Stats | Type of statistics used | Means, SDs, frequencies, etc. | | 4 | M and SD | Define Mean (M), Standard Deviation (SD) | M = average; SD = variability | | 5 | Test for CPR Experience | Which test for two independent groups? | Independent t-test | | 6 | Test for SCE Comparison | Which test for pre/post in same group? | Paired t-test | | 7 | Statistical Difference | Was there a significant change? | Look for p-value < .05 | | 8 | Pre-SCE Difference | Significant difference pre-SCE? | Again, p-value and test statistic | | 9 | Appropriateness | Do tests fit data level? | Justify your answer with rationale | --- **Tip:** For best results, have the article open and refer to the page numbers and tables mentioned in each question. Let me know if you want specific sample answers or further explanation on any point!